X-ray detectors for macromolecular crystallography

doi:10.1016/S0959-440X(94)90177-5

Current Opinion in Structural Biology

Volume 4, Issue 5, October 1994, Pages 765-769

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-440X(94)90177-5 Get rights and content

Abstract

Modern X-ray detectors are having a tremendous impact on the conduct of macromolecular crystallography. Whereas X-ray film and diffractometers were the X-ray detectors of choice for protein crystallography just a short while ago, data today are more typically being collected on a variety of storage phosphor or electronic detectors. The strengths and weaknesses of current detectors are discussed.

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Cited by (20)

X-Ray Diffraction Experiment: The Last Experiment in the Structure Elucidation Process
2009, Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology
Citation Excerpt :
At the same time, Nicolet and San Diego Multiwire (currently Area Detector System Corporations (ADSC)) independently developed very successful multiwire detectors for use with rotating anode X-ray generators (Hamlin et al., 1975, 1981). At the beginning of the 1990s, a new charge-coupled device (CCD) detector (Gruner, 1994; Gruner et al., 2002) constructed by Sol Gruner was extremely successful at CHESS synchrotron. Now, CCD detectors are responsible for almost 100% of data collected at synchrotron stations and are frequently used on “home” X-ray diffraction stations as well (Fig. 1).
Recent years have brought not only an avalanche of new macromolecular structures, but also significant advances in the protein structure determination methodology only now making its way into structure-based drug discovery. In this chapter, we review recent methodology developments in X-ray diffraction experiments that led to fast and very accurate elucidation of three-dimensional structures of macromolecules. We will discuss the role of data collection as the last experiment performed in the crystal structure determination process. A statistical analysis of diffraction experiments that are reported in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) is also presented.
[3] Personal X-Ray Reflections
2003, Methods in Enzymology
This chapter discusses the progress and development made in the field of crystallography. It outlines the history of development of crystallography. X-ray tubes in the early days were not very powerful and exposure times of several days were sometimes necessary. The maximum power that can be dissipated in the tube target without melting it is set by the rate at which heat can be conducted away from the electron focus to the water-cooled rear surface of the target. A higher power is possible when the target surface is moved. Recently, high-brilliance micro-source X-ray tubes have been reintroduced. At one time, crystallography was regarded as a separate science in its own right. Today in biology it is seen merely as one of the several techniques available for solving structure-related problems. Researchers in the new field of “structural genomics” are looking forward to fully automatic experimentation, from protein isolation and purification via crystallization, crystal harvesting, and mounting to data collection and processing.
Development of high-speed Imaging Plate detector
2001, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
The Imaging Plate (IP) has the excellent properties of a large active area size and a wide dynamic range, however, the long readout time of the stored image is becoming the greatest drawback at synchrotron radiation facility. To overcome this difficulty, a high-speed IP detector, which can readout a large number of 400×400 mm² IPs successively in less than 60 s/IP has been designed and developed for protein crystallography.
Use of organic cosmotropic solutes to crystallize flexible proteins: Application to T7 RNA polymerase and its complex with the inhibitor T7 lysozyme
1997, Journal of Molecular Biology
We have crystallized, using several approaches that may be of general interest, T7 RNA polymerase (T7RP) and the T7 RNA polymerase-T7 lysozyme complex (T7RPL) in forms suitable for structure determination by X-ray crystallography. A series of polyhydric alcohols, sugars, amino and methylamino acids, compounds known to stabilize protein structure, were found to be critical for both crystallization and subsequent improvement of the crystal’s diffraction resolution. Moreover, optimal crystallogenesis was achieved through an unconventional “reverse” vapor diffusion sitting drop method that is suitable for proteins that are insoluble at low ionic strength.
T7RP has been crystallized in an orthorhombic form (I), space group P 222, with cell parameters a = 220 Å, b = 205 Å, c = 67 Å and a monoclinic form (II), space group P 2₁, with cell parameters a = 229 Å, b = 205 Å, c = 70 Å, β = 106°. Crystal form I diffracts X-rays to 3.5 Å and form II to 6.0 Å. Three and six copies of the polymerase are predicted to be in the asymmetric unit forms I and II, respectively.
Three monoclinic crystal forms of the T7RPL complex have been obtained in space group C 2. Form I has cell parameters a = 320 Å, b = 93 Å, c = 229 Å, β = 129°, form II has parameters a = 293 Å, b = 93 Å,c = 68 Å, β = 93°, and form III has parameters a = 270 Å, b = 93 Å, c = 63 Å, β = 103°. Crystal form I diffracts synchrotron wiggler radiation to 3.2 Å and form III to 2.8 Å. Calculations of crystal density imply three or four copies of the complex in form I and one copy in the asymmetric unit of forms II and III.
Charge-coupled device-based area detectors
1997, Methods in Enzymology
This chapter discusses the physical and geometric properties of charge-coupled device (CCD) detector designs and examines the way in which a system without image amplification, despite its low signal level, can operate efficiently and with excellent sensitivity. Photon-counting detectors include traditional scintillation counter-based diffractometers and multiwire proportional gas chambers. Counting detectors must discriminate each X-ray photon—an electronic process requiring a finite time (its dead time). Integrating detectors have virtually no upper rate limits because they measure the total energy deposited during an integration period (although individual pixels can become saturated if the signal exceeds its storage capacity). The physical and electronic properties of a charge-coupled device are discussed in the chapter. The Advanced Photon Source (APS)-1 detector is a significant part of an integrated technical facility that also features an undulator X-ray source on the APS, carefully designed X-ray optics, modern networking, and a powerful computing environment (multiple processors, fast, large RAID disk arrays).
X-ray storage-phosphor imaging-plate detectors: High-sensitivity X-ray area detector
1997, Methods in Enzymology
This chapter discusses X-ray storage-phosphor imaging-plate detectors. The excellent performance characteristics of an imaging plate (IP) as an integrating X-ray area detector are well suited to X-ray diffraction and scattering experiments, especially to macromolecular crystallography in which the shortest exposure time or the smallest amount of X-ray dose possible is required. IPs have replaced conventional X-ray film and point-by-point diffractometry, which were conventionally used in macromolecular crystallography. A combination of two powerful tools—synchrotron radiation (SR) and IP—has mutually enhanced their potentials. With the advent of more intense X-rays from insertion devices installed in the 6–8 GeV storage rings, the IP system continues to play a more important role as one of the best X-ray area detectors because of its high detective quantum efficiency (DQE) and lack of any instantaneous count-rate limitations. An IP can also be used for time-resolved measurements of an X-ray diffraction pattern when it is rapidly moved with a synchronized X-ray shutter operation.

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X-ray detectors for macromolecular crystallography

Abstract

Nucl Instrum Methods

Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res

Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res

Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res

Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res

J Appl Crystallogr

Survey of Two-Dimensional Electro-Optical X-ray Detectors

Nucl Instrum Methods

X-ray Position-Sensitive Detectors

J Appl Crystallogr

CCD and Vidicon X-ray Detectors: Theory and Practice

Rev Sci Instrum

Solid-State Detectors for Synchrotron Radiation Experiments

Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res

Applications in Biology and Condensed Matter Physics

Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res