Skip to main content

Main menu

  • Home
  • Current Issue
  • Archive
  • Info for
    • Authors
    • Editorial Policies
    • Subscribers
    • Advertisers
    • Editorial Board
    • Special Issues 2025
  • Journal Metrics
  • Other Publications
    • In Vivo
    • Cancer Genomics & Proteomics
    • Cancer Diagnosis & Prognosis
  • More
    • IIAR
    • Conferences
    • 2008 Nobel Laureates
  • About Us
    • General Policy
    • Contact
  • Other Publications
    • Anticancer Research
    • In Vivo
    • Cancer Genomics & Proteomics

User menu

  • Register
  • Subscribe
  • My alerts
  • Log in
  • My Cart

Search

  • Advanced search
Anticancer Research
  • Other Publications
    • Anticancer Research
    • In Vivo
    • Cancer Genomics & Proteomics
  • Register
  • Subscribe
  • My alerts
  • Log in
  • My Cart
Anticancer Research

Advanced Search

  • Home
  • Current Issue
  • Archive
  • Info for
    • Authors
    • Editorial Policies
    • Subscribers
    • Advertisers
    • Editorial Board
    • Special Issues 2025
  • Journal Metrics
  • Other Publications
    • In Vivo
    • Cancer Genomics & Proteomics
    • Cancer Diagnosis & Prognosis
  • More
    • IIAR
    • Conferences
    • 2008 Nobel Laureates
  • About Us
    • General Policy
    • Contact
  • Visit us on Facebook
  • Follow us on Linkedin
Review ArticleClinical StudiesR

Vitamin D in Preventive Medicine

STEFAN PILZ, MARTIN GAKSCH, BRÍAIN Ó HARTAIGH, ANDREAS TOMASCHITZ and WINFRIED MÄRZ
Anticancer Research February 2015, 35 (2) 1161-1170;
STEFAN PILZ
1Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
2Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • For correspondence: stefan.pilz@chello.at
MARTIN GAKSCH
1Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
BRÍAIN Ó HARTAIGH
3Department of Radiology, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital and the Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, U.S.A.
4Department of Internal Medicine/Geriatrics, Yale School of Medicine, Adler Geriatric Center, New Haven, CT, U.S.A.
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
ANDREAS TOMASCHITZ
5Specialist Clinic of Rehabilitation PV Bad Aussee, Bad Aussee, Austria
6Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
WINFRIED MÄRZ
7Clinical Institute of Medical and Chemical Laboratory Diagnostics, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
8Medical Clinic V (Nephrology, Hypertensiology, Endocrinology, Diabetology, Rheumatology) Mannheim Medical Faculty, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
9Synlab Academy, Synlab Laboratory Services GmbH, Mannheim, Germany
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • Article
  • Info & Metrics
  • PDF
Loading

Abstract

The global burden of vitamin D deficiency is of great concern for public health. Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have shown that vitamin D supplementation reduces fractures, falls, and mortality. These findings are, however, not universally accepted and there exists certain controversy regarding the potential benefits of vitamin D. Whereas vitamin D might also be relevant for extra-skeletal diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, or infections, the recommended Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) are solely based on skeletal effects. The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) range from 600 to 800 international units (IU) of vitamin D per day, corresponding to a 25-hydroxyvitamin D level of 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L). Consequently, there exists a substantial gap between the RDA and the actual high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in general populations, particularly among the elderly. Therefore, achieving the RDA will require additional efforts including food fortification, vitamin D supplementation and health campaigns.

  • Vitamin D
  • preventive medicine
  • cancer
  • epidemiology
  • 25(OH)D
  • review

Vitamin D deficiency is a well-recognized cause of rickets, which is characterized by impaired bone mineralization resulting in skeletal deformities (1-3). Apart from malnutrition, in particular, low sunlight exposure with the consequence of vitamin D deficiency has been a major contributor to the high prevalence of rickets during the past centuries (1). Prior to the discovery of vitamin D by McCollum in 1922, it had been documented that sunlight or ultraviolet-B (UV-B) exposure, which is required for vitamin D synthesis in the skin, was effective for the prevention and treatment of rickets (1). Nutrition is a minor source of vitamin D, and it has been widely established that babies and infants are supplemented with vitamin D for the purpose of rickets prevention (1-3). As sufficient calcium supply is required for physiological skeletal mineralization, it is clear that the effects of vitamin D on calcium absorption in the gut and calcium re-absorption in the kidneys are essential for bone and skeletal health. While in the past, rickets has been a major public health burden, nowadays it is observed that adults, especially with advancing age, are prone to vitamin D deficiency and may subsequently develop osteomalacia (4, 5). Similar to rickets, this disease is characterized by bone mineralization defects of the adult skeleton leading to clinical signs such as bone pain and muscle weakness (4, 5).

In recent years, our perception of vitamin D has fundamentally changed from a substance that is “only” relevant for bone and mineral diseases, to a substance that might be critical for many extra-skeletal diseases and overall well-being (6-8). This can be attributed to the fact that vitamin D receptors (VDR) have been identified in almost every human cell and that VDR activation has been shown to regulate hundreds of genes (8). Hence, vitamin D can be characterized as a pro-hormone with a unique metabolism in which it is hydroxylated to its major circulating metabolite 25-hydroyvitamin D (25[OH]D) in the liver, and is later converted to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25[OH]2D), the so called active vitamin D hormone calcitriol (8). Serum calcitriol is predominantly produced in the kidneys but many extra-renal cells are also capable of converting 25(OH)D to 1,25(OH)2D on a local level. Stimulated by many publications linking vitamin D deficiency to several chronic diseases there is currently an ongoing debate regarding the potential role of vitamin D in preventive medicine (9-11).

In this narrative review, we set-out to provide a brief overview on the existing evidence of vitamin D and common chronic diseases relevant to the public health setting. Specifically, we focused on the most recent developments and meta-analyses, while outlining the recommended Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for vitamin D in the context of the actual prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, as well as the possible approaches on how vitamin D status could be further improved on an individual and population level. Finally, we discuss the ongoing vitamin D trials and present our conclusions on the available knowledge regarding vitamin D in preventive medicine.

Vitamin D, Fractures and Falls

Beyond rickets and osteomalacia, vitamin D is currently a recommended standard treatment for patients with osteoporosis (12). In an individual patient data meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) it was demonstrated that a supplemental vitamin D dose of approximately 800 to 2000 International Units (IU) per day (1 IU is equivalent to 0.025 μg vitamin D) was effective in reducing the incidence of any non-vertebral and hip fractures (13). Nevertheless, whether fracture prevention by vitamin D supplementation is modified by the prevailing vitamin D status, nutritional vitamin D intake, calcium intake, or age is still largely unclear. In addition, it should be noted that not all meta-analyses investigating this issue reached the conclusion that vitamin D supplementation significantly reduces the risk of fractures (14, 15). While most vitamin D RCTs were performed in older individuals, the question arises of whether vitamin D should also be advocated for primary fracture prevention in younger as well as non-institutionalized persons. In this context, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) argues against daily vitamin D and calcium supplementation for primary prevention of fractures in non-institutionalized postmenopausal women (15). This is in line with a meta-analysis indicating that there was no significant impact of vitamin D supplementation on bone mineral density (BMD) (16). It must, however, be stressed that older individuals are more prone to vitamin D deficiency, osteomalacia, and fractures, and several experts conclude that the current evidence justifies the recommendation of a vitamin D intake, at best with a supplement, of 800 IU per day for those above the age of 65 years (17).

Vitamin D deficiency, particularly in the setting of osteomalacia, has also been associated with muscle weakness. Various meta-analyses of RCTs have, therefore, addressed the question as to whether vitamin D supplementation diminishes the risk of falls in older individuals, albeit, those studies have not consistently displayed a significant effect (18-22). It has been proposed that a disparity in the inclusion criteria of studies and data extraction might, in part, explain the heterogeneous findings on vitamin D and falls (19).

At present, there exist much more systematic reviews and meta-analyses than original RCTs on vitamin D, fractures and falls (19). In general, current literature suggests that vitamin D supplementation may reduce non-vertebral fractures with, in our opinion, an effect on falls that is probable but still needs to be further studied (23). Of concern, however, is the disparity in conclusions reported among overlapping meta-analyses. Solving this crucial issue in the field of vitamin D will be one of the numerous major tasks that need to be accounted for in coming years (19).

Vitamin D and Cancer

The present story of vitamin D and cancer was preceded by observations in the first half of the 20th century, proposing that higher sunlight (UV) exposure was associated with reduced cancer mortality (24, 25). As UV exposure is required for vitamin D production in the skin, it has been postulated by Garland and Garland in 1980 that vitamin D could protect against cancer (26). Their hypothesis was based on the observation that colorectal cancer deaths were inversely associated with solar radiation (26). Several further etiological studies confirmed that mortality due to various cancer sites was significantly reduced in regions with high UV exposure (27). Thus, while UV exposure is well-known to augment the risk of skin cancer, VDR activation does comprise of some beneficial effects towards skin cancer to the point that vitamin D deficiency is perhaps an issue that shouldn't be overlooked in such patients (28). To this end, various molecular effects of VDR activation protect against the initiation and progression of cancer (29, 30). In epidemiological studies, it has been documented that low 25(OH)D levels are associated with increased risk of many different cancer sites (31-33). It has become particularly evident that patients already diagnosed with cancer have a significantly reduced survival if they are vitamin D-deficient (31-34). In spite of this, data derived from RCTs on vitamin D supplementation and cancer incidence as well as mortality are sparse and have largely failed to show any beneficial impact of vitamin D on cancer incidence and mortality (35). Nonetheless, it is worth mentioning that two recent meta-analyses of RCTs demonstrated that vitamin D supplementation is associated with modest, though statistically significant reduction in overall cancer mortality (36-38). Due to high drop-outs of the analyzed studies along with other limitations of the data, it is however still not completely clear whether vitamin D supplementation is actually reducing cancer mortality (38).

Vitamin D and Extra-skeletal Diseases

Vitamin D deficiency has been identified as an independent risk factor for many chronic diseases including, beyond cancer and musculoskeletal diseases, also cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, infections, autoimmune diseases and neurological diseases such as dementia (6-11, 22, 39-41). The current evidence for vitamin D and these extra-skeletal diseases has been well-reviewed elsewhere (6-11, 22, 39-41). In an “umbrella review” of published reviews and meta-analyses regarding vitamin D and multiple health outcomes it was concluded that “highly-convincing evidence of a clear role of vitamin D does not exist for any outcome, but associations with a selection of outcomes are probable“ (22). In detail, probable associations with vitamin D concentrations were found for birth weight, dental caries in children, maternal vitamin D concentrations at term, and parathyroid hormone (PTH) concentrations in dialysis patients (22). By contrast, a meta-analysis on cardiovascular effects of vitamin D concluded that vitamin D supplementation might protect against heart failure (42). Thus, a clinically-significant cardiovascular protective effect of vitamin D should not be ruled-out. This notion is also supported by recent data suggesting that vitamin D might lower blood pressure which is considered one of the main factors for global disease burden and premature mortality (43-45). Although the current evidence is insufficient to state that vitamin D protects against any of these suggested extra-skeletal diseases, we cannot rule-out the possibility that forthcoming studies will provide evidence for the extra-skeletal benefits regarding vitamin D.

Vitamin D and Mortality

Most, but not all, epidemiological studies involving the general population as well as patients suffering from heart disease, chronic kidney disease, liver failure, diabetes mellitus or metabolic syndrome, as well as nursing home residents identified low 25(OH)D concentrations to be an independent risk factor for mortality (46-54). This has been confirmed in a few meta-analyses in general populations as well as in patients suffering from chronic kidney disease (55-58). Of note, the association between 25(OH)D and mortality shows a U- or a reverse J-shaped curve (59, 60). In a meta-analysis by Zittermann et al. the lowest mortality risk was observed at 25(OH)D concentrations ranging from 30 to 35 ng/mL (75 to 87.5 nmol/L) (55). Mortality risk was by trend higher at 25(OHD levels above 35 ng/mL (87.5 nmol/L) but it was neither statistically significantly increased nor do we have, at present, sufficient data to judge on the relationship between 25(OH)D and mortality at concentrations above approximately 45 to 50 ng/mL (112.5 to 125 nmol/L).

In addition to these observational data it has turned-out in meta-analyses of RCTs that vitamin D3 supplementation reduces overall mortality (14, 37, 58, 61). In a Cochrane meta-analysis, Bjelakovic et al. reported that 150 individuals would need to be treated over five years in order to prevent one additional death (37). Although this finding was statistically significant it must be noted that due to incomplete follow-up data of the analyzed RCTs and some other limitations it is still not entirely clear whether this reflects a true effect (14, 37, 58, 61). Nevertheless, a reduction in mortality on the background of vitamin D supplementation according to meta-analyses of RCTs provides a strong rationale in favour of the benefits and safety of vitamin D.

Dietary Reference Intakes of Vitamin D

In 2010, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated the recommendations for the intake of vitamin D and calcium (62). After an extensive review, it was concluded that the beneficial effects of vitamin D on skeletal health are a sufficient basis for intake recommendations whereas it was also noted that the evidence for any non-skeletal effect of vitamin D is still insufficient and remains inconclusive. In detail, the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamin D that should cover the requirements of ≥97.5% of the general population are: 600 IU per day for ages 1-70 years, and 800 IU per day for ages 71 year and older (62). This should correspond to a serum 25(OH)D level of at least 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L), as calculated by regression analyses using data from vitamin D intervention studies performed in the winter season (62, 63). Similar levels have been recommended in other countries and by other leading health authorities (63-66). Importantly, the RDAs have been calculated for individuals with minimal or no sunlight exposure, which is e.g. the case in nothern Europe during winter season because UV-B exposure during winter months at these latitudes is too weak for a sufficient endogenous vitamin D production in the skin (62).

Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency and Current Vitamin D Intakes

When examining the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency it has to be acknowledged that there exists no universal cut-off. According to the IOM report, a 25(OH)D level of 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L) would meet the requirement of 97.5% of the population, whereas levels of 16 ng/mL (40 nmol/L) would meet the requirements of 50% of the general population (average requirement), and levels below 12 ng/mL (30 nmol/L) indicate risk of vitamin D deficiency (62). A lot of scientific discussion has taken place on whether 30 ng/mL (75 nmol/L) should be set as the standard threshold level of 25(OH)D sufficiency rather than 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L). Nevertheless, there is wide agreement that it is a reasonable goal to prevent and treat 25(OH)D levels below 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L). When discussing recommendations for certain 25(OH)D concentrations it must be underlined that some recommendations such as the IOM report are for the general population whereas other guidelines such as the Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline are for patient care (21, 62).

In systematic reviews, it turned-out that a significant proportion of individuals in general populations has 25(OH)D concentrations below 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L) (67, 68). For instance, in one systematic review on worldwide vitamin D status comprising 195 studies with 168,000 individuals, more than one-third (37.3 %) of the studies' mean 25(OH)D values were below 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L) (66). Vitamin D intake including nutrition and supplements has also been assessed in many different countries (69-71). Notably, the intake from all vitamin D sources is in most general populations below 200 IU per day (5μg per day) and is thus far below the RDA (69-71).

When reporting on the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency it should be taken into consideration that the measurement of 25(OH)D is challenging and there exist significant assay and laboratory differences (72-75). This has led to approaches for the standardization of 25(OH)D measurements and the Vitamin D Standardization Program (VDSP) including the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) in collaboration with the CDC National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH), the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and Ghent University is currently working on this (76, 77). Beyond the issue of standardization, there remain several knowledge gaps, such as the impact of the vitamin D binding protein (DBP) and some vitamin D metabolites such as the 3-epimer on the assessment of vitamin D status (77-79).

Prevention and Treatment of Vitamin D Deficiency

Developing strategies to prevent and treat vitamin D deficiency are extremely challenging, since the contribution of various vitamin D sources to circulating 25(OH)D levels remains, in large parts, unclear and there exists a significant modification by several environmental and individual characteristics (63, 64, 71, 80, 81). In most individuals, UV-B induced vitamin D synthesis in the skin is the major source for circulating 25(OH)D levels. This is well-reflected by the significant seasonal variation of 25(OH)D. Moreover, cutaneous vitamin D production as well as other sources, i.e. nutrition (e.g. fish or eggs), vitamin D supplements or mobilisation of stores from e.g. the adipose tissue, have a high variability. Metabolism and levels of 25(OH)D are also influenced by e.g. inflammation or other hormones including PTH and fibroblast-growth-factor-23 (FGF-23) (82, 83). Therefore, precise estimation of 25(OH)D status is hardly possible even after taking into account the dietary, lifestyle, and genetic determinants of vitamin D (84).

When examining the current vitamin D intake and 25(OH)D status in the general population, it is obvious that we have a huge gap between the RDA and the actual intake and levels of vitamin D. While there are ongoing investigations to extend our knowledge on vitamin D and its DRI, health professionals and health authorities have to deal with the present evidence and recommendations and have to take responsibilities for public health issues regarding vitamin D.

Countries such as the United States or Finland have already introduced vitamin D food fortification to improve the vitamin D status of the general population. Indeed, food fortification seems to be the best approach for improving vitamin D status on a population level (71). To this end, vitamin D supplementation appears to be a reasonable approach for individual improvement of vitamin D status when considering the care of patients or persons at high risk of vitamin D deficiency. Several expert panels contemplate the use of a general vitamin D supplementation as a worthy approach for preventing and treating vitamin D deficiency among at-risk populations, particularly among the elderly (17). This is supported by the fact that a vitamin dose according to the RDA of 600 to 800 IU vitamin D per day has a wide therapeutic window when considering the safe tolerable upper intake levels of 4000 IU per day, as suggested by the IOM and the EFSA (European Food and Safety Authority) (62, 85). In humans, vitamin D doses up to 10,000 IU per day have not been associated with significant adverse effects (86). A dose of 10,000 IU vitamin D per day is also approximately equivalent to the maximum endogenous vitamin D production in the skin, and there is no report on sunlight induced vitamin D intoxication. Acute vitamin D intoxication with hypercalcemia, acute renal failure and calcifications does not occur until 25(OH)D levels rise above approximately 150 to 200 ng/mL (~375 to 500 nmol/L) (86). Considering that the dose response relationship between vitamin D intake and 25(OH)D concentration plateaus with higher amounts, it is only possible with extreme overdosing to achieve such toxic concentrations of 25(OH)D (87). It must however be acknowledged that only very few data are available on long-term effects of vitamin D above the safe tolerable upper intake levels of 4000 IU per day (88, 89). Regarding vitamin D supplement selection there is an ongoing debate as to whether supplementation of vitamin D3 is more effective compared to vitamin D2 in raising circulating 25(OH)D levels, though most experts advocate the use of vitamin D3 (90). The dose response relationship for increasing levels of 25(OH)D following vitamin D supplementation demonstrates a high variability and is dependent on several factors such as body weight, age, simultaneous calcium intake and basal 25(OH)D status, etc. (87, 91-93). As a crude estimate, supplementation of 1000 IU of vitamin D3 per day may increase 25(OH)D levels by approximately 10-20 ng/mL (25 to 50 nmol/L) (91-93). Importantly, re-measurements of 25(OH)D should not be performed prior to 3 months of commencing vitamin D supplementation since this is approximately the duration it takes to achieve a steady state for 25(OH)D. Interestingly, concomitant calcium intake, which may slightly increase cardiovascular events, seems to decrease the compliance of vitamin D supplementation (91, 94). A healthy and balanced diet is of course important, but almost nobody reaches a daily vitamin D intake of 600 to 800 IU by a normal western diet without food fortification and without supplements (63, 64, 70, 71).

Recommendations regarding sufficient sunlight exposure for increasing 25(OH)D levels reflect a double-edged dagger considering UV exposure as a well-accepted carcinogen (28). While there is ongoing discussion on this topic, some authors propose that the net effects of moderate UV exposure may be beneficial (28). It appears that short and frequent sun exposure is a reasonable approach for improving vitamin D status (28). Foremost, the recommended and required vitamin D levels can be achieved with much less intensive UV or sunlight exposure than that which causes an erythema or sunburn (i.e. a sub-erythemal dose) (28, 95-97). The dose of UV-B or sunlight exposure required for a sufficient vitamin D production depends on several factors such as latitude, daytime, skin pigmentation, and age, though exposing on most days about 20% of your skin for a few minutes in the noon sunshine in summer months is usually sufficient at latitudes such as e.g. Boston (95-97).

Obesity should also be considered since it has a significant impact on vitamin D status (98, 99). Deposition of vitamin D in various tissues, particularly the adipose tissue, seems to be one of the main factors why there is an inverse association between body weight and 25(OH)D. Some studies revealed that reducing body weight is effective in increasing 25(OH)D levels. Hence, besides the established beneficial effects, combating obesity should also be known in the lay public as something that brings more “sunshine vitamin” into your life. Campaigns for promoting a healthier lifestyle through outdoor exercise could lead to a “2 for 1”, with participants obtaining sufficient sunlight exposure for simply being outdoors, while a reasonable amount of physical activity would be aimed at lowering the burden of obesity (100).

Ongoing Vitamin D Trials

Some large vitamin D RCTs in the general population are currently ongoing and should be completed in the years 2017 to 2020 (101, 102). The anticipated results from these trials will undeniably draw a new picture on the effects of vitamin D in preventive medicine. The efforts of these trials are greatly appreciated, but when looking back at the history of previous disappointing vitamin trials it becomes apparent that vitamin D will probably repeat the story of other vitamins such as vitamin E (103, 104). In our opinion, one major pitfall of the vitamin D RCTs is that they do not specifically enrol vitamin D deficient individuals, thus ignoring the U-shaped association between 25(OH)D and outcome with a significant increase in risk only at very low 25(OH)D levels. Additional limitations of ongoing vitamin D RCTs are that they allow vitamin D supplementation in the placebo group and use a fixed dose for everyone. It is therefore rather unlikely that these studies will demonstrate significant overall benefits of vitamin D supplementation (103). In light of these limitations, we strongly encourage further vitamin D RCTs including participants with very low 25(OH)D levels and with vitamin D doses to achieve optimal 25(OH)D levels as documented by previous meta-analyses of epidemiological studies.

Conclusion

It is widely accepted that vitamin D is essential for the maintenance of skeletal health and accumulating evidence suggests that vitamin D deficiency is an independent risk factor for various extra-skeletal diseases including cancer. Whether vitamin D is simply a marker of risk or has actually some beneficial effects on non-skeletal diseases remains to be elucidated. Therefore, current recommendations regarding preventive medicine should be based on skeletal effects of vitamin D. While RDAs have recently been published for vitamin D, it is also apparent that there is a huge gap between these recommendations and the genuine vitamin D intake and vitamin D status in the general population. Health professionals and public health authorities are, therefore, encouraged to place further emphasis on combating vitamin D deficiency. Potential approaches include food fortification for the general population, vitamin D supplementation in at-risk individuals such as the elderly, and by advocating lifestyle modifications such as outdoor physical activity for the avoidance of obesity with careful and balanced sunlight exposure, and a healthy diet. Though, in addition, studies designed to determine the most optimal and efficient means in achieving a physiologic and healthy vitamin D status are urgently needed.

Acknowledgements

Martin Gaksch is supported by the EU project ODIN (Food-based solutions for Optimal vitamin D Nutrition and health throughout the life cycle; FP7-KBBE-2013-7-single-stage; Grant agreement no: 613977; http://www.odin-vitd.eu/).

  • Received August 29, 2014.
  • Revision received October 2, 2014.
  • Accepted October 9, 2014.
  • Copyright© 2015 International Institute of Anticancer Research (Dr. John G. Delinassios), All rights reserved

References

  1. ↵
    1. Holick MF
    : McCollum Award Lecture, 1994: vitamin D--new horizons for the 21st century. Am J Clin Nutr 60: 619-630, 1994.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Prentice A
    : Nutritional rickets around the world. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 136: 201-206, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  2. ↵
    1. Winzenberg T,
    2. Jones G
    : Vitamin D and bone health in childhood and adolescence. Calcif Tissue Int 92: 140-150, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  3. ↵
    1. Lips P
    : Vitamin D deficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism in the elderly: consequences for bone loss and fractures and therapeutic implications. Endocr Rev 22: 477-501, 2001
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  4. ↵
    1. Bhan A,
    2. Rao AD,
    3. Rao DS
    : Osteomalacia as a result of vitamin D deficiency. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 38: 81-91, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  5. ↵
    1. Pludowski P,
    2. Holick MF,
    3. Pilz S,
    4. Wagner CL,
    5. Hollis BW,
    6. Grant WB,
    7. Shoenfeld Y,
    8. Lerchbaum E,
    9. Llewellyn DJ,
    10. Kienreich K,
    11. Soni M
    : Vitamin D effects on musculoskeletal health, immunity, autoimmunity, cardiovascular disease, cancer, fertility, pregnancy, dementia and mortality-A review of recent evidence. Autoimmun Rev 12: 976-989, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Rosen CJ,
    2. Adams JS,
    3. Bikle DD,
    4. Black DM,
    5. Demay MB,
    6. Manson JE,
    7. Murad MH,
    8. Kovacs CS
    : The nonskeletal effects of vitamin D: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocr Rev 33: 456-492, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  6. ↵
    1. Bouillon R,
    2. Carmeliet G,
    3. Verlinden L,
    4. van Etten E,
    5. Verstuyf A,
    6. Luderer HF,
    7. Lieben L,
    8. Mathieu C,
    9. Demay M
    : Vitamin D and human health: lessons from vitamin D receptor null mice. Endocr Rev 29: 726-776, 2008.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  7. ↵
    1. Holick MF,
    2. Binkley NC,
    3. Bischoff-Ferrari HA,
    4. Gordon CM,
    5. Hanley DA,
    6. Heaney RP,
    7. Murad MH,
    8. Weaver CM
    : Guidelines for preventing and treating vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency revisited. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 1153-1158, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Rosen CJ,
    2. Abrams SA,
    3. Aloia JF,
    4. Brannon PM,
    5. Clinton SK,
    6. Durazo-Arvizu RA,
    7. Gallagher JC,
    8. Gallo RL,
    9. Jones G,
    10. Kovacs CS,
    11. Manson JE,
    12. Mayne ST,
    13. Ross AC,
    14. Shapses SA,
    15. Taylor CL
    : IOM committee members respond to Endocrine Society vitamin D guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 1146-1152, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  8. ↵
    1. Souberbielle JC,
    2. Body JJ,
    3. Lappe JM,
    4. Plebani M,
    5. Shoenfeld Y,
    6. Wang TJ,
    7. Bischoff-Ferrari HA,
    8. Cavalier E,
    9. Ebeling PR,
    10. Fardellone P,
    11. Gandini S,
    12. Gruson D,
    13. Guérin AP,
    14. Heickendorff L,
    15. Hollis BW,
    16. Ish-Shalom S,
    17. Jean G,
    18. von Landenberg P,
    19. Largura A,
    20. Olsson T,
    21. Pierrot-Deseilligny C,
    22. Pilz S,
    23. Tincani A,
    24. Valcour A,
    25. Zittermann A
    : Vitamin D and musculoskeletal health, cardiovascular disease, autoimmunity and cancer: Recommendations for clinical practice. Autoimmun Rev 9: 709-715, 2010.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  9. ↵
    1. Kanis JA,
    2. McCloskey EV,
    3. Johansson H,
    4. Cooper C,
    5. Rizzoli R,
    6. Reginster JY,
    7. Scientific Advisory Board of the European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis (ESCEO),
    8. the Committee of Scientific Advisors of the International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF)
    : European guidance for the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 24: 23-57, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  10. ↵
    1. Bischoff-Ferrari HA,
    2. Willett WC,
    3. Orav EJ,
    4. Lips P,
    5. Meunier PJ,
    6. Lyons RA,
    7. Flicker L,
    8. Wark J,
    9. Jackson RD,
    10. Cauley JA,
    11. Meyer HE,
    12. Pfeifer M,
    13. Sanders KM,
    14. Stähelin HB,
    15. Theiler R,
    16. Dawson-Hughes B
    : A pooled analysis of vitamin D dose requirements for fracture prevention. N Engl J Med 367: 40-49, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  11. ↵
    1. Bolland MJ,
    2. Grey A,
    3. Gamble GD,
    4. Reid IR
    : The effect of vitamin D supplementation on skeletal, vascular, or cancer outcomes: a trial sequential meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2: 307-320, 2014.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  12. ↵
    1. Moyer VA,
    2. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force
    : Vitamin D and calcium supplementation to prevent fractures in adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 158: 691-696, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  13. ↵
    1. Reid IR,
    2. Bolland MJ,
    3. Grey A
    : Effects of vitamin D supplements on bone mineral density: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 383: 146-155, 2014.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  14. ↵
    1. Brouwer-Brolsma EM,
    2. Bischoff-Ferrari HA,
    3. Bouillon R,
    4. Feskens EJ,
    5. Gallagher CJ,
    6. Hypponen E,
    7. Llewellyn DJ,
    8. Stoecklin E,
    9. Dierkes J,
    10. Kies AK,
    11. Kok FJ,
    12. Lamberg-Allardt C,
    13. Moser U,
    14. Pilz S,
    15. Saris WH,
    16. van Schoor NM,
    17. Weber P,
    18. Witkamp R,
    19. Zittermann A,
    20. de Groot LC
    : Vitamin D: do we get enough? A discussion between vitamin D experts in order to make a step towards the harmonisation of dietary reference intakes for vitamin D across Europe. Osteoporos Int 24: 1567-1577, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  15. ↵
    1. Bolland MJ,
    2. Grey A,
    3. Gamble GD,
    4. Reid IR
    : Vitamin D supplementation and falls: a trial sequential meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2: 573-580, 2014.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  16. ↵
    1. Bolland MJ,
    2. Grey A,
    3. Reid IR
    : Differences in overlapping meta-analyses of vitamin D supplements and falls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Aug 5:jc20142562.
    1. Murad MH,
    2. Elamin KB,
    3. Abu Elnour NO,
    4. Elamin MB,
    5. Alkatib AA,
    6. Fatourechi MM,
    7. Almandoz JP,
    8. Mullan RJ,
    9. Lane MA,
    10. Liu H,
    11. Erwin PJ,
    12. Hensrud DD,
    13. Montori VM
    : Clinical review: The effect of vitamin D on falls: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96: 2997-3006, 2011.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  17. ↵
    1. Holick MF,
    2. Binkley NC,
    3. Bischoff-Ferrari HA,
    4. Gordon CM,
    5. Hanley DA,
    6. Heaney RP,
    7. Murad MH,
    8. Weaver CM,
    9. Endocrine Society
    : Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96: 1911-1930, 2011.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  18. ↵
    1. Theodoratou E,
    2. Tzoulaki I,
    3. Zgaga L,
    4. Ioannidis JP
    : Vitamin D and multiple health outcomes: umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies and randomised trials. BMJ 348: g2035, 2014.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  19. ↵
    1. Lips P,
    2. Gielen E,
    3. van Schoor NM
    : Vitamin D supplements with or without calcium to prevent fractures. Bonekey Rep 3: 512, 2014.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  20. ↵
    1. Apperly FL
    : The Relation of Solar Radiation to Cancer Mortality in North America. Cancer Res 1: 191-195, 1941.
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  21. ↵
    1. Pilz S
    : Vitamin D and cancer: current evidence and future perspective. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 13: 2-3, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  22. ↵
    1. Garland CF,
    2. Garland FC
    : Do sunlight and vitamin D reduce the likelihood of colon cancer? Int J Epidemiol 9: 227-231, 1980.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  23. ↵
    1. Grant WB
    : Update on evidence that support a role of solar ultraviolet-B irradiance in reducing cancer risk. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 13: 140-146, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  24. ↵
    1. Mason RS,
    2. Reichrath J
    : Sunlight vitamin D and skin cancer. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 13: 83-97, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  25. ↵
    1. Chiang KC,
    2. Chen TC
    : The anti-cancer actions of vitamin D. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 13: 126-139, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  26. ↵
    1. Höbaus J,
    2. Thiem U,
    3. Hummel DM,
    4. Kallay E
    : Role of calcium, vitamin D, and the extrarenal vitamin D hydroxylases in carcinogenesis. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 13: 20-35, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  27. ↵
    1. Pilz S,
    2. Kienreich K,
    3. Tomaschitz A,
    4. Ritz E,
    5. Lerchbaum E,
    6. Obermayer-Pietsch B,
    7. Matzi V,
    8. Lindenmann J,
    9. März W,
    10. Gandini S,
    11. Dekker JM
    : Vitamin D and cancer mortality: systematic review of prospective epidemiological studies. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 13: 107-117, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Yin L,
    2. Ordóñez-Mena JM,
    3. Chen T,
    4. Schöttker B,
    5. Arndt V,
    6. Brenner H
    : Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D serum concentration and total cancer incidence and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev Med 57: 753-764, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  28. ↵
    1. Pilz S,
    2. Tomaschitz A,
    3. Obermayer-Pietsch B,
    4. Dobnig H,
    5. Pieber TR
    : Epidemiology of vitamin D insufficiency and cancer mortality. Anticancer Res 29: 3699-3704, 2009.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  29. ↵
    1. Mohr SB,
    2. Gorham ED,
    3. Kim J,
    4. Hofflich H,
    5. Garland CF
    : Meta-analysis of vitamin D sufficiency for improving survival of patients with breast cancer. Anticancer Res 34: 1163-1166, 2014.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  30. ↵
    1. Lazzeroni M,
    2. Serrano D,
    3. Pilz S,
    4. Gandini S
    : Vitamin D supplementation and cancer: review of randomized controlled trials. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 13: 118-125, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  31. ↵
    1. Keum N,
    2. Giovannucci E
    : Vitamin D supplements and cancer incidence and mortality: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 111: 976-980, 2014.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  32. ↵
    1. Bjelakovic G,
    2. Gluud LL,
    3. Nikolova D,
    4. Whitfield K,
    5. Wetterslev J,
    6. Simonetti RG,
    7. Bjelakovic M,
    8. Gluud C
    : Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of mortality in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1: CD007470, 2014.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  33. ↵
    1. Bjelakovic G,
    2. Gluud LL,
    3. Nikolova D,
    4. Whitfield K,
    5. Krstic G,
    6. Wetterslev J,
    7. Gluud C
    : Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of cancer in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6: CD007469, 2014.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  34. ↵
    1. Pilz S,
    2. Gaksch M,
    3. O'Hartaigh B,
    4. Tomaschitz A,
    5. März W
    : The role of vitamin D deficiency in cardiovascular disease: where do we stand in 2013? Arch Toxicol 87: 2083-2103, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Pilz S,
    2. Tomaschitz A,
    3. Drechsler C,
    4. Zittermann A,
    5. Dekker JM,
    6. März W
    : Vitamin D supplementation: a promising approach for the prevention and treatment of strokes. Curr Drug Targets 12: 88-96, 2011.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  35. ↵
    1. Muscogiuri G,
    2. Sorice GP,
    3. Ajjan R,
    4. Mezza T,
    5. Pilz S,
    6. Prioletta A,
    7. Scragg R,
    8. Volpe SL,
    9. Witham MD,
    10. Giaccari A
    : Can vitamin D deficiency cause diabetes and cardiovascular diseases? Present evidence and future perspectives. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 22: 81-87, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  36. ↵
    1. Ford JA,
    2. MacLennan GS,
    3. Avenell A,
    4. Bolland M,
    5. Grey A,
    6. Witham M,
    7. for the RECORD Trial Group
    : Cardiovascular disease and vitamin D supplementation: trial analysis, systematic review, and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 100: 746-755, 2014.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  37. ↵
    1. Kunutsor SK,
    2. Burgess S,
    3. Munroe PB,
    4. Khan H
    : Vitamin D and high blood pressure: causal association or epiphenomenon? Eur J Epidemiol 29: 1-14, 2014.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Vimaleswaran KS,
    2. Cavadino A,
    3. Berry DJ,
    4. LifeLines Cohort Study investigators,
    5. Jorde R,
    6. Dieffenbach AK,
    7. Lu C,
    8. Alves AC,
    9. Heerspink HJ,
    10. Tikkanen E,
    11. Eriksson J,
    12. Wong A,
    13. Mangino M,
    14. Jablonski KA,
    15. Nolte IM,
    16. Houston DK,
    17. Ahluwalia TS,
    18. van der Most PJ,
    19. Pasko D,
    20. Zgaga L,
    21. Thiering E,
    22. Vitart V,
    23. Fraser RM,
    24. Huffman JE,
    25. de Boer RA,
    26. Schöttker B,
    27. Saum KU,
    28. McCarthy MI,
    29. Dupuis J,
    30. Herzig KH,
    31. Sebert S,
    32. Pouta A,
    33. Laitinen J,
    34. Kleber ME,
    35. Navis G,
    36. Lorentzon M,
    37. Jameson K,
    38. Arden N,
    39. Cooper JA,
    40. Acharya J,
    41. Hardy R,
    42. Raitakari O,
    43. Ripatti S,
    44. Billings LK,
    45. Lahti J,
    46. Osmond C,
    47. Penninx BW,
    48. Rejnmark L,
    49. Lohman KK,
    50. Paternoster L,
    51. Stolk RP,
    52. Hernandez DG,
    53. Byberg L,
    54. Hagström E,
    55. Melhus H,
    56. Ingelsson E,
    57. Mellström D,
    58. Ljunggren O,
    59. Tzoulaki I,
    60. McLachlan S,
    61. Theodoratou E,
    62. Tiesler CM,
    63. Jula A,
    64. Navarro P,
    65. Wright AF,
    66. Polasek O,
    67. International Consortium for Blood Pressure (ICBP),
    68. Cohorts for Heart and Aging Research in Genomic Epidemiology (CHARGE) consortium,
    69. Global Blood Pressure Genetics (Global BPGen) consortium,
    70. Hayward Caroline,
    71. Wilson JF,
    72. Rudan I,
    73. Salomaa V,
    74. Heinrich J,
    75. Campbell H,
    76. Price JF,
    77. Karlsson M,
    78. Lind L,
    79. Michaëlsson K,
    80. Bandinelli S,
    81. Frayling TM,
    82. Hartman CA,
    83. Sørensen TI,
    84. Kritchevsky SB,
    85. Langdahl BL,
    86. Eriksson JG,
    87. Florez JC,
    88. Spector TD,
    89. Lehtimäki T,
    90. Kuh D,
    91. Humphries SE,
    92. Cooper C,
    93. Ohlsson C,
    94. März W,
    95. de Borst MH,
    96. Kumari M,
    97. Kivimaki M,
    98. Wang TJ,
    99. Power C,
    100. Brenner H,
    101. Grimnes G,
    102. van der Harst P,
    103. Snieder H,
    104. Hingorani AD,
    105. Pilz S,
    106. Whittaker JC,
    107. Järvelin MR,
    108. Hyppönen E
    : Association of vitamin D status with arterial blood pressure and hypertension risk: a mendelian randomisation study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2: 719-729, 2014.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  38. ↵
    1. Lim SS,
    2. Vos T,
    3. Flaxman AD,
    4. Danaei G,
    5. Shibuya K,
    6. Adair-Rohani H,
    7. Amann M,
    8. Anderson HR,
    9. Andrews KG,
    10. Aryee M,
    11. Atkinson C,
    12. Bacchus LJ,
    13. Bahalim AN,
    14. Balakrishnan K,
    15. Balmes J,
    16. Barker-Collo S,
    17. Baxter A,
    18. Bell ML,
    19. Blore JD,
    20. Blyth F,
    21. Bonner C,
    22. Borges G,
    23. Bourne R,
    24. Boussinesq M,
    25. Brauer M,
    26. Brooks P,
    27. Bruce NG,
    28. Brunekreef B,
    29. Bryan-Hancock C,
    30. Bucello C,
    31. Buchbinder R,
    32. Bull F,
    33. Burnett RT,
    34. Byers TE,
    35. Calabria B,
    36. Carapetis J,
    37. Carnahan E,
    38. Chafe Z,
    39. Charlson F,
    40. Chen H,
    41. Chen JS,
    42. Cheng AT,
    43. Child JC,
    44. Cohen A,
    45. Colson KE,
    46. Cowie BC,
    47. Darby S,
    48. Darling S,
    49. Davis A,
    50. Degenhardt L,
    51. Dentener F,
    52. Des Jarlais DC,
    53. Devries K,
    54. Dherani M,
    55. Ding EL,
    56. Dorsey ER,
    57. Driscoll T,
    58. Edmond K,
    59. Ali SE,
    60. Engell RE,
    61. Erwin PJ,
    62. Fahimi S,
    63. Falder G,
    64. Farzadfar F,
    65. Ferrari A,
    66. Finucane MM,
    67. Flaxman S,
    68. Fowkes FG,
    69. Freedman G,
    70. Freeman MK,
    71. Gakidou E,
    72. Ghosh S,
    73. Giovannucci E,
    74. Gmel G,
    75. Graham K,
    76. Grainger R,
    77. Grant B,
    78. Gunnell D,
    79. Gutierrez HR,
    80. Hall W,
    81. Hoek HW,
    82. Hogan A,
    83. Hosgood HD 3rd.,
    84. Hoy D,
    85. Hu H,
    86. Hubbell BJ,
    87. Hutchings SJ,
    88. Ibeanusi SE,
    89. Jacklyn GL,
    90. Jasrasaria R,
    91. Jonas JB,
    92. Kan H,
    93. Kanis JA,
    94. Kassebaum N,
    95. Kawakami N,
    96. Khang YH,
    97. Khatibzadeh S,
    98. Khoo JP,
    99. Kok C,
    100. Laden F,
    101. Lalloo R,
    102. Lan Q,
    103. Lathlean T,
    104. Leasher JL,
    105. Leigh J,
    106. Li Y,
    107. Lin JK,
    108. Lipshultz SE,
    109. London S,
    110. Lozano R,
    111. Lu Y,
    112. Mak J,
    113. Malekzadeh R,
    114. Mallinger L,
    115. Marcenes W,
    116. March L,
    117. Marks R,
    118. Martin R,
    119. McGale P,
    120. McGrath J,
    121. Mehta S,
    122. Mensah GA,
    123. Merriman TR,
    124. Micha R,
    125. Michaud C,
    126. Mishra V,
    127. Mohd Hanafiah K,
    128. Mokdad AA,
    129. Morawska L,
    130. Mozaffarian D,
    131. Murphy T,
    132. Naghavi M,
    133. Neal B,
    134. Nelson PK,
    135. Nolla JM,
    136. Norman R,
    137. Olives C,
    138. Omer SB,
    139. Orchard J,
    140. Osborne R,
    141. Ostro B,
    142. Page A,
    143. Pandey KD,
    144. Parry CD,
    145. Passmore E,
    146. Patra J,
    147. Pearce N,
    148. Pelizzari PM,
    149. Petzold M,
    150. Phillips MR,
    151. Pope D,
    152. Pope CA 3rd.,
    153. Powles J,
    154. Rao M,
    155. Razavi H,
    156. Rehfuess EA,
    157. Rehm JT,
    158. Ritz B,
    159. Rivara FP,
    160. Roberts T,
    161. Robinson C,
    162. Rodriguez-Portales JA,
    163. Romieu I,
    164. Room R,
    165. Rosenfeld LC,
    166. Roy A,
    167. Rushton L,
    168. Salomon JA,
    169. Sampson U,
    170. Sanchez-Riera L,
    171. Sanman E,
    172. Sapkota A,
    173. Seedat S,
    174. Shi P,
    175. Shield K,
    176. Shivakoti R,
    177. Singh GM,
    178. Sleet DA,
    179. Smith E,
    180. Smith KR,
    181. Stapelberg NJ,
    182. Steenland K,
    183. Stöckl H,
    184. Stovner LJ,
    185. Straif K,
    186. Straney L,
    187. Thurston GD,
    188. Tran JH,
    189. Van Dingenen R,
    190. van Donkelaar A,
    191. Veerman JL,
    192. Vijayakumar L,
    193. Weintraub R,
    194. Weissman MM,
    195. White RA,
    196. Whiteford H,
    197. Wiersma ST,
    198. Wilkinson JD,
    199. Williams HC,
    200. Williams W,
    201. Wilson N,
    202. Woolf AD,
    203. Yip P,
    204. Zielinski JM,
    205. Lopez AD,
    206. Murray CJ,
    207. Ezzati M,
    208. AlMazroa MA,
    209. Memish ZA
    : A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380: 2224-2260, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  39. ↵
    1. Melamed ML,
    2. Michos ED,
    3. Post W,
    4. Astor B
    : 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the risk of mortality in the general population. Arch Intern Med 168: 1629-1637, 2008.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Schöttker B,
    2. Haug U,
    3. Schomburg L,
    4. Köhrle J,
    5. Perna L,
    6. Müller H,
    7. Holleczek B,
    8. Brenner H
    : Strong associations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations with all-cause, cardiovascular, cancer, and respiratory disease mortality in a large cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr 97: 782-793, 2013.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Schöttker B,
    2. Saum KU,
    3. Perna L,
    4. Ordóñez-Mena JM,
    5. Holleczek B,
    6. Brenner H
    : Is vitamin D deficiency a cause of increased morbidity and mortality at older age or simply an indicator of poor health? Eur J Epidemiol 29: 199-210, 2014.
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Pilz S,
    2. März W,
    3. Wellnitz B,
    4. Seelhorst U,
    5. Fahrleitner-Pammer A,
    6. Dimai HP,
    7. Boehm BO,
    8. Dobnig H
    : Association of vitamin D deficiency with heart failure and sudden cardiac death in a large cross-sectional study of patients referred for coronary angiography. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93: 3927-3935, 2008.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Zittermann A,
    2. Kuhn J,
    3. Dreier J,
    4. Knabbe C,
    5. Gummert JF,
    6. Börgermann J
    : Vitamin D status and the risk of major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events in cardiac surgery. Eur Heart J 34: 1358-1364, 2013.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Pilz S,
    2. Tomaschitz A,
    3. Friedl C,
    4. Amrein K,
    5. Drechsler C,
    6. Ritz E,
    7. Boehm BO,
    8. Grammer TB,
    9. März W
    : Vitamin D status and mortality in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 26: 3603-3609, 2011.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Putz-Bankuti C,
    2. Pilz S,
    3. Stojakovic T,
    4. Scharnagl H,
    5. Pieber TR,
    6. Trauner M,
    7. Obermayer-Pietsch B,
    8. Stauber RE
    : Association of 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels with liver dysfunction and mortality in chronic liver disease. Liver Int 32: 845-851, 2012.
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Thomas GN,
    2. ó Hartaigh B,
    3. Bosch JA,
    4. Pilz S,
    5. Loerbroks A,
    6. Kleber ME,
    7. Fischer JE,
    8. Grammer TB,
    9. Böhm BO,
    10. März W
    : Vitamin D levels predict all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in subjects with the metabolic syndrome: the Ludwigshafen Risk and Cardiovascular Health (LURIC) Study. Diabetes Care 35: 1158-1164, 2012.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  40. ↵
    1. Pilz S,
    2. Dobnig H,
    3. Tomaschitz A,
    4. Kienreich K,
    5. Meinitzer A,
    6. Friedl C,
    7. Wagner D,
    8. Piswanger-Sölkner C,
    9. März W,
    10. Fahrleitner-Pammer A
    : Low 25-hydroxyvitamin D is associated with increased mortality in female nursing home residents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: E653-657, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  41. ↵
    1. Zittermann A,
    2. Iodice S,
    3. Pilz S,
    4. Grant WB,
    5. Bagnardi V,
    6. Gandini S
    : Vitamin D deficiency and mortality risk in the general population: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies Am J Clin Nutr 95: 91-100, 2012.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Pilz S,
    2. Iodice S,
    3. Zittermann A,
    4. Grant WB,
    5. Gandini S
    : Vitamin D status and mortality risk in CKD: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Am J Kidney Dis 58: 374-382, 2011.
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Schöttker B,
    2. Jorde R,
    3. Peasey A,
    4. Thorand B,
    5. Jansen EH,
    6. Groot Ld,
    7. Streppel M,
    8. Gardiner J,
    9. Ordóñez-Mena JM,
    10. Perna L,
    11. Wilsgaard T,
    12. Rathmann W,
    13. Feskens E,
    14. Kampman E,
    15. Siganos G,
    16. Njølstad I,
    17. Mathiesen EB,
    18. Kubínová R,
    19. Pająk A,
    20. Topor-Madry R,
    21. Tamosiunas A,
    22. Hughes M,
    23. Kee F,
    24. Bobak M,
    25. Trichopoulou A,
    26. Boffetta P,
    27. Brenner H,
    28. Consortium on Health and Ageing
    : Network of Cohorts in Europe and the United States: Vitamin D and mortality: meta-analysis of individual participant data from a large consortium of cohort studies from Europe and the United States. BMJ 348: g3656, 2014.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  42. ↵
    1. Chowdhury R,
    2. Kunutsor S,
    3. Vitezova A,
    4. Oliver-Williams C,
    5. Chowdhury S,
    6. Kiefte-de-Jong JC,
    7. Khan H,
    8. Baena CP,
    9. Prabhakaran D,
    10. Hoshen MB,
    11. Feldman BS,
    12. Pan A,
    13. Johnson L,
    14. Crowe F,
    15. Hu FB,
    16. Franco OH
    : Vitamin D and risk of cause specific death: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational cohort and randomised intervention studies. BMJ 348: g1903, 2014.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  43. ↵
    1. Michaëlsson K,
    2. Baron JA,
    3. Snellman G,
    4. Gedeborg R,
    5. Byberg L,
    6. Sundström J,
    7. Berglund L,
    8. Arnlöv J,
    9. Hellman P,
    10. Blomhoff R,
    11. Wolk A,
    12. Garmo H,
    13. Holmberg L,
    14. Melhus H
    : Plasma vitamin D and mortality in older men: a community-based prospective cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr 92: 841-848, 2010.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  44. ↵
    1. Sempos CT,
    2. Durazo-Arvizu RA,
    3. Dawson-Hughes B,
    4. Yetley EA,
    5. Looker AC,
    6. Schleicher RL,
    7. Cao G,
    8. Burt V,
    9. Kramer H,
    10. Bailey RL,
    11. Dwyer JT,
    12. Zhang X,
    13. Gahche J,
    14. Coates PM,
    15. Picciano MF
    : Is there a reverse J-shaped association between 25-hydroxyvitamin D and all-cause mortality? Results from the U.S. nationally representative NHANES. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98: 3001-3009, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  45. ↵
    1. Rejnmark L,
    2. Avenell A,
    3. Masud T,
    4. Anderson F,
    5. Meyer HE,
    6. Sanders KM,
    7. Salovaara K,
    8. Cooper C,
    9. Smith HE,
    10. Jacobs ET,
    11. Torgerson D,
    12. Jackson RD,
    13. Manson JE,
    14. Brixen K,
    15. Mosekilde L,
    16. Robbins JA,
    17. Francis RM,
    18. Abrahamsen B
    : Vitamin D with calcium reduces mortality: patient level pooled analysis of 70,528 patients from eight major vitamin D trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 2670-2681, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  46. ↵
    1. Ross AC,
    2. Manson JE,
    3. Abrams SA,
    4. Aloia JF,
    5. Brannon PM,
    6. Clinton SK,
    7. Durazo-Arvizu RA,
    8. Gallagher JC,
    9. Gallo RL,
    10. Jones G,
    11. Kovacs CS,
    12. Mayne ST,
    13. Rosen CJ,
    14. Shapses SA
    : The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what clinicians need to know. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96: 53-58, 2011.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  47. ↵
    1. Cashman KD,
    2. Kiely M
    : Recommended dietary intakes for vitamin D: where do they come from, what do they achieve and how can we meet them? J Hum Nutr Diet 27: 434-442, 2014.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  48. ↵
    1. Cashman KD,
    2. Kiely M
    : EURRECA-Estimating vitamin D requirements for deriving dietary reference values. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 53: 1097-1109, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Wise J
    : NICE advises certain groups to take daily vitamin D supplement. BMJ. 2014 May 15;348:g3349.
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  49. ↵
    1. German Nutrition Society
    : New reference values for vitamin D. Ann Nutr Metab 60: 241-6, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  50. ↵
    1. Hilger J,
    2. Friedel A,
    3. Herr R,
    4. Rausch T,
    5. Roos F,
    6. Wahl DA,
    7. Pierroz DD,
    8. Weber P,
    9. Hoffmann K
    : A systematic review of vitamin D status in populations worldwide. Br J Nutr 111: 23-45, 2014.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  51. ↵
    1. Wahl DA,
    2. Cooper C,
    3. Ebeling PR,
    4. Eggersdorfer M,
    5. Hilger J,
    6. Hoffmann K,
    7. Josse R,
    8. Kanis JA,
    9. Mithal A,
    10. Pierroz DD,
    11. Stenmark J,
    12. Stöcklin E,
    13. Dawson-Hughes B
    : A global representation of vitamin D status in healthy populations. Arch Osteoporos 7: 155-172, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  52. ↵
    1. Hintzpeter B,
    2. Mensink GB,
    3. Thierfelder W,
    4. Müller MJ,
    5. Scheidt-Nave C
    : Vitamin D status and health correlates among German adults. Eur J Clin Nutr 62: 1079-1089, 2008.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  53. ↵
    1. Calvo MS,
    2. Whiting SJ,
    3. Barton CN
    : Vitamin D intake: a global perspective of current status. J Nutr 135: 310-316, 2005.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  54. ↵
    1. Kiely M,
    2. Black LJ
    : Dietary strategies to maintain adequacy of circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl 243: 14-23, 2012.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  55. ↵
    1. Carter GD
    : 25-hydroxyvitamin D: a difficult analyte. Clin Chem 58: 486-488, 2012.
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
    1. Lips P,
    2. Chapuy MC,
    3. Dawson-Hughes B,
    4. Pols HA,
    5. Holick MF
    : An international comparison of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D measurements. Osteoporos Int 9: 394-397, 1999.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Schmid J,
    2. Kienreich K,
    3. Gaksch M,
    4. Grübler M,
    5. Raggam R,
    6. Meinitzer A,
    7. Rutters F,
    8. Dekker JM,
    9. März W,
    10. Verheyen N,
    11. Tomaschitz A,
    12. Pilz S
    : The importance of assays in vitamin D status classification: a comparison of four automated 25-hydroxyvitamin D immunoassays. LaboratoriumsMedizin 37: 261-268, 2013.
    OpenUrl
  56. ↵
    1. Binkley N,
    2. Krueger D,
    3. Cowgill CS,
    4. Plum L,
    5. Lake E,
    6. Hansen KE,
    7. DeLuca HF,
    8. Drezner MK
    : Assay variation confounds the diagnosis of hypovitaminosis D: a call for standardization. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89: 3152-3157, 2004.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  57. ↵
    1. Cashman KD,
    2. Kiely M,
    3. Kinsella M,
    4. Durazo-Arvizu RA,
    5. Tian L,
    6. Zhang Y,
    7. Lucey A,
    8. Flynn A,
    9. Gibney MJ,
    10. Vesper HW,
    11. Phinney KW,
    12. Coates PM,
    13. Picciano MF,
    14. Sempos CT
    : Evaluation of Vitamin D Standardization Program protocols for standardizing serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D data: a case study of the program's potential for national nutrition and health surveys. Am J Clin Nutr 97: 1235-1242, 2013.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  58. ↵
    1. Sempos CT,
    2. Vesper HW,
    3. Phinney KW,
    4. Thienpont LM,
    5. Coates PM
    : Vitamin D Standardization Program (VDSP): Vitamin D status as an international issue: national surveys and the problem of standardization. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl 243: 32-40, 2012.
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Powe CE,
    2. Evans MK,
    3. Wenger J,
    4. Zonderman AB,
    5. Berg AH,
    6. Nalls M,
    7. Tamez H,
    8. Zhang D,
    9. Bhan I,
    10. Karumanchi SA,
    11. Powe NR,
    12. Thadhani R
    : Vitamin D-binding protein and vitamin D status of black Americans and white Americans. N Engl J Med 369: 1991-2000, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  59. ↵
    1. Binkley N,
    2. Wiebe D
    : Clinical controversies in vitamin D: 25(OH)D measurement, target concentration, and supplementation. J Clin Densitom 6: 402-408, 2013.
    OpenUrl
  60. ↵
    1. Heaney RP,
    2. Armas LA,
    3. French C
    : All-source basal vitamin D inputs are greater than previously thought and cutaneous inputs are smaller. J Nutr 143: 571-575, 2013.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  61. ↵
    1. Romagnoli E,
    2. Pepe J,
    3. Piemonte S,
    4. Cipriani C,
    5. Minisola S
    : Management of endocrine disease: value and limitations of assessing vitamin D nutritional status and advised levels of vitamin D supplementation. Eur J Endocrinol 169: R59-69, 2013.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  62. ↵
    1. Autier P,
    2. Boniol M,
    3. Pizot C,
    4. Mullie P
    : Vitamin D status and ill health: a systematic review. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2: 76-89, 2014.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  63. ↵
    1. Murr C,
    2. Pilz S,
    3. Grammer TB,
    4. Kleber ME,
    5. Meinitzer A,
    6. Boehm BO,
    7. Marz W,
    8. Fuchs D
    : Vitamin D deficiency parallels inflammation and immune activation, the Ludwigshafen Risk and Cardiovascular Health (LURIC) study. Clin Chem Lab Med 50: 2205-2212, 2012.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  64. ↵
    1. Kühn T,
    2. Kaaks R,
    3. Teucher B,
    4. Hirche F,
    5. Dierkes J,
    6. Weikert C,
    7. Katzke V,
    8. Boeing H,
    9. Stangl GI,
    10. Buijsse B
    : Dietary, lifestyle, and genetic determinants of vitamin D status: a cross-sectional analysis from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Germany study. Eur J Nutr 53: 731-741, 2014.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  65. ↵
    1. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA)
    : Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level of vitamin D. EFSA Journal 10: 2813: 1-45, 2012.
    OpenUrl
  66. ↵
    1. Zittermann A,
    2. Prokop S,
    3. Gummert JF,
    4. Börgermann J
    : Safety issues of vitamin D supplementation. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 13: 4-10, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  67. ↵
    1. Cashman KD,
    2. Fitzgerald AP,
    3. Kiely M,
    4. Seamans KM
    : A systematic review and meta-regression analysis of the vitamin D intake-serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D relationship to inform European recommendations. Br J Nutr 106: 1638-1648, 2011.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  68. ↵
    1. Jorde R,
    2. Strand Hutchinson M,
    3. Kjærgaard M,
    4. Sneve M,
    5. Grimnes G
    : Supplementation with High Doses of Vitamin D to Subjects without Vitamin D Deficiency May Have Negative Effects: Pooled Data from Four Intervention Trials in Tromsø. ISRN Endocrinol 2013: 348705, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  69. ↵
    1. Davidson MB,
    2. Duran P,
    3. Lee ML,
    4. Friedman TC
    : High-dose vitamin D supplementation in people with prediabetes and hypovitaminosis D. Diabetes Care 36: 260-266, 2013.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  70. ↵
    1. Tripkovic L,
    2. Lambert H,
    3. Hart K,
    4. Smith CP,
    5. Bucca G,
    6. Penson S,
    7. Chope G,
    8. Hyppönen E,
    9. Berry J,
    10. Vieth R,
    11. Lanham-New S
    : Comparison of vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 supplementation in raising serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 95: 1357-1364, 2012.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  71. ↵
    1. Autier P,
    2. Gandini S,
    3. Mullie P
    : A systematic review: influence of vitamin D supplementation on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 2606-2613, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Zittermann A,
    2. Ernst JB,
    3. Gummert JF,
    4. Börgermann J
    : Vitamin D supplementation, body weight and human serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D response: a systematic review. Eur J Nutr 53: 367-374, 2014.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  72. ↵
    1. Shab-Bidar S,
    2. Bours S,
    3. Geusens PP,
    4. Kessels AG,
    5. van den Bergh JP
    : Serum 25(OH)D response to vitamin D3 supplementation: A meta-regression analysis. Nutrition 30: 975-985, 2014.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  73. ↵
    1. Reid IR
    : Cardiovascular effects of calcium supplements. Nutrients 5: 2522-2529, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  74. ↵
    1. Bogh MK
    : Vitamin D production after UVB: aspects of UV-related and personal factors. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl 243: 24-31, 2012.
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Bogh MK,
    2. Schmedes AV,
    3. Philipsen PA,
    4. Thieden E,
    5. Wulf HC
    : A small suberythemal ultraviolet B dose every second week is sufficient to maintain summer vitamin D levels: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Dermatol 166: 430-433, 2012.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  75. ↵
    1. Wacker M,
    2. Holick MF
    : Sunlight and vitamin D: a global perspective for health. Dermatoendocrinol 5: 51-108, 2012.
    OpenUrl
  76. ↵
    1. Vimaleswaran KS,
    2. Berry DJ,
    3. Lu C,
    4. Tikkanen E,
    5. Pilz S,
    6. Hiraki LT,
    7. Cooper JD,
    8. Dastani Z,
    9. Li R,
    10. Houston DK,
    11. Wood AR,
    12. Michaëlsson K,
    13. Vandenput L,
    14. Zgaga L,
    15. Yerges-Armstrong LM,
    16. McCarthy MI,
    17. Dupuis J,
    18. Kaakinen M,
    19. Kleber ME,
    20. Jameson K,
    21. Arden N,
    22. Raitakari O,
    23. Viikari J,
    24. Lohman KK,
    25. Ferrucci L,
    26. Melhus H,
    27. Ingelsson E,
    28. Byberg L,
    29. Lind L,
    30. Lorentzon M,
    31. Salomaa V,
    32. Campbell H,
    33. Dunlop M,
    34. Mitchell BD,
    35. Herzig KH,
    36. Pouta A,
    37. Hartikainen AL,
    38. Genetic Investigation of Anthropometric Traits-GIANT Consortium,
    39. Streeten EA,
    40. Theodoratou E,
    41. Jula A,
    42. Wareham NJ,
    43. Ohlsson C,
    44. Frayling TM,
    45. Kritchevsky SB,
    46. Spector TD,
    47. Richards JB,
    48. Lehtimäki T,
    49. Ouwehand WH,
    50. Kraft P,
    51. Cooper C,
    52. März W,
    53. Power C,
    54. Loos RJ,
    55. Wang TJ,
    56. Järvelin MR,
    57. Whittaker JC,
    58. Hingorani AD,
    59. Hyppönen E
    : Causal relationship between obesity and vitamin D status: bi-directional Mendelian randomization analysis of multiple cohorts. PLoS Med 10: e1001383, 2013.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  77. ↵
    1. Earthman CP,
    2. Beckman LM,
    3. Masodkar K,
    4. Sibley SD
    : The link between obesity and low circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations: considerations and implications. Int J Obes (Lond) 36: 387-96, 2012.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  78. ↵
    1. Wicherts IS,
    2. Boeke AJ,
    3. van der Meer IM,
    4. van Schoor NM,
    5. Knol DL,
    6. Lips P
    : Sunlight exposure or vitamin D supplementation for vitamin D-deficient non-western immigrants: a randomized clinical trial. Osteoporos Int 2011; 22: 873-82.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  79. ↵
    1. Kupferschmidt K
    : Uncertain verdict as vitamin D goes on trial. Science 337: 1476-1478, 2012.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  80. ↵
    1. Pilz S,
    2. Rutters F,
    3. Dekker JM
    : Disease prevention: vitamin D trials. Science 338: 883, 2012.
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  81. ↵
    1. Péter S,
    2. Moser U,
    3. Pilz S,
    4. Eggersdorfer M,
    5. Weber P
    : The challenge of setting appropriate intake recommendations for vitamin E: considerations on status and functionality to define nutrient requirements. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 83: 129-136, 2013.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  82. ↵
    1. Robinson I,
    2. de Serna DG,
    3. Gutierrez A,
    4. Schade DS
    : Vitamin E in humans: an explanation of clinical trial failure. Endocr Pract 12: 576-582, 2006.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
PreviousNext
Back to top

In this issue

Anticancer Research: 35 (2)
Anticancer Research
Vol. 35, Issue 2
February 2015
  • Table of Contents
  • Table of Contents (PDF)
  • Index by author
  • Back Matter (PDF)
  • Ed Board (PDF)
  • Front Matter (PDF)
Print
Download PDF
Article Alerts
Sign In to Email Alerts with your Email Address
Email Article

Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on Anticancer Research.

NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address.

Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas.
Vitamin D in Preventive Medicine
(Your Name) has sent you a message from Anticancer Research
(Your Name) thought you would like to see the Anticancer Research web site.
CAPTCHA
This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions.
5 + 11 =
Solve this simple math problem and enter the result. E.g. for 1+3, enter 4.
Citation Tools
Vitamin D in Preventive Medicine
STEFAN PILZ, MARTIN GAKSCH, BRÍAIN Ó HARTAIGH, ANDREAS TOMASCHITZ, WINFRIED MÄRZ
Anticancer Research Feb 2015, 35 (2) 1161-1170;

Citation Manager Formats

  • BibTeX
  • Bookends
  • EasyBib
  • EndNote (tagged)
  • EndNote 8 (xml)
  • Medlars
  • Mendeley
  • Papers
  • RefWorks Tagged
  • Ref Manager
  • RIS
  • Zotero
Reprints and Permissions
Share
Vitamin D in Preventive Medicine
STEFAN PILZ, MARTIN GAKSCH, BRÍAIN Ó HARTAIGH, ANDREAS TOMASCHITZ, WINFRIED MÄRZ
Anticancer Research Feb 2015, 35 (2) 1161-1170;
Twitter logo Facebook logo Mendeley logo
  • Tweet Widget
  • Facebook Like
  • Google Plus One

Jump to section

  • Article
    • Abstract
    • Vitamin D, Fractures and Falls
    • Vitamin D and Cancer
    • Vitamin D and Extra-skeletal Diseases
    • Vitamin D and Mortality
    • Dietary Reference Intakes of Vitamin D
    • Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency and Current Vitamin D Intakes
    • Prevention and Treatment of Vitamin D Deficiency
    • Ongoing Vitamin D Trials
    • Conclusion
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • Info & Metrics
  • PDF

Related Articles

  • No related articles found.
  • PubMed
  • Google Scholar

Cited By...

  • Vitamin D: Current Guidelines and Future Outlook
  • Vitamin D and Mortality
  • Google Scholar

More in this TOC Section

Clinical Studies

  • Clinical Outcomes of Metastasis-directed Therapy for Oligo-metastatic Prostate Cancer Diagnosed Using PSMA-PET/CT or Whole-body MRI
  • Blood Concentrations of Osimertinib and Its Active Metabolites: Impact on Treatment Efficacy and Safety
  • Randomized Study of Short-time Continuous Saline Irrigation After Transurethral Resection in Non-muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer
Show more Clinical Studies

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 5TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON VITAMIN D AND ANALOGS IN CANCER PREVENTION AND THERAPY, 2-3 May, 2014, Krefeld, Germany

  • Development of Efficient Chemical Syntheses of Vitamin D Degradation Products
  • Vitamin D Inhibits Ovarian Cancer Cell Line Proliferation in Combination with Celecoxib and Suppresses Cyclooxygenase-2 Expression
Show more PROCEEDINGS OF THE 5TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON VITAMIN D AND ANALOGS IN CANCER PREVENTION AND THERAPY, 2-3 May, 2014, Krefeld, Germany

Similar Articles

Keywords

  • vitamin D
  • preventive medicine
  • cancer
  • epidemiology
  • 25(OH)D
  • review
Anticancer Research

© 2025 Anticancer Research

Powered by HighWire